cL ar Rejoa 001103126: CIA-RDP96-00787000200080051-8 met 'Fscientinc met od" by counterexample S. L. Blatt epartment of Physics D The Ohio State University Columbus, Ohio 43210 (Received 4 March 1975) Increasing the students' understanding of the methods of science, is often one of the goals of an introductory course in physics for nonscientists. To supplement the examples arising directly from the usual subject matter and to stimulate clearer thought concerning the nature of scientific inquiry, discussion of some subjects which have a surface resemblance to science is proposed. The history of research into extrasensory perception appears to be ideal as such a counterexample, allowing for explicit comparisons which illuminate the subject Of methodology in science while maintaining high student interest. Lecture suggestions. including demonstrations, are discussed. 1. PRELUDE the following question appears at the beginning of a final examination in introductory physics for nonscience @@"Iiktludents. The reader also is invited to answer the question bfore proceeding. Please write, in the spaces provided, the name of one item in each of the following categories: 1. A color . . . 2. A flower . 3. A piece of furniture. . . . 11. INTRODUCTION The objectives of a course in introductory physics for nonscience students often require that, in addition to the basic -subject matter of physics, an explicit attempt be in ade, to increase the students' awareness 'of the processes ALTough which scientific knowledge is obtained. While century world-it is important to also present some coun- terexamples, A study of' the claims and methods of' a nonscientific area can provide, by way of' contrast, a new, perspective in which to view the processes involved in the development and advancement of' physics. Many areas of current interest and controversy may be considered appropriate for the role of "nonscientific COLm ations of' the instruc terexample," depending on the inclin, tor and students. Astrology is one possibility that can be logically discussed after a study of' planetary motions, or other astronomical phenomena.1.2 Unidenl@fiedffying ob- Jecs, catastrophic cosmological evews in the recent his- tory of the earth. and related lore could be introduced, similarly, to compare with the nature of physical theory and observation. The subject of* extrosensorl, perception, more familiarly known as ESP, has been found to be especially good for this purpose. The remainder of this paper is devoted to providing (a) some background on ESP, with some of the contrasts between its historical de- velopment and the methods followed by physicists, and (b) an outline for a lecture on the subject, complete with demonstrations. This lecture format has been used for the past several years; it has never failed to capture the in- terest of the students and has always generated long and fruitful discussions concerning criteria for evidence, mod- els of reality, and the whole gamut of science methodolo- gy. 111. BACKGROUND ON ESP The subject of ESP has been, historically, a controver- sial one. A Dew wave of interest has recently emerged, accompanied by a host of new books and new claims (both of authenticity and of fraud). The recent publication of a study of the phenomena produced by one well-known ESP practitioner, Uri Geller, appearing in.a prestigious scientific journal,' has been countered by articles in the general public media' suggesting where the scientists may have been misled. Photographic studies' of a mysterious 11 aura' surrounding living objects, said by some to be re ated to the " thought- transfer" process and by others to be simple, predictable electrostatic effects, have been made with impressively compticated apparatus. All the appearance of conventional scientific investigation is pres- ent, and it is truly a challenge to attempt to analyze these new efforts in an old field objectively. However, the interest generated by this revival of ESP research provides an excellent opportunity to introduce the subject in its his- torical context, and to contrast its development with that of Dhvsics. coveries can be noted in laboratory sessions, lectures en given distinctive nam" readings on historical developments, and all other aspects (i) Clairvoyance is usually defined as the ability to of the course. However, if any development of a critical have knowledge of events which are taking place in the facility is desired-such as the ability to sort out what is present, but about which no sensory input can be had. scieInce and what is not science in the modern twentieth (ii) Precognition is defined as the ability to have 7DP96-00787ROO0200080051 Amer A& ican Journa," by the American Association of Physics Teachers 1@ g red or Releaw.,2001/03/26 : CIA-RDP96 FrKrTge ore -00787SPOO200080051-8 events before tMe'y happen. subject who l7ater faltered was usually explained by ad. (iii) Telepathy is defined as the ability to transfer hoc "interfering factors" attributed to tCheertaien1icabjyec:;fs. thoughts directly from one person to another, with.no.in.7. ESP: tiredness, skeptical observers, etc. tervening sensory means. were found to be "forward targeting"; that is, their (iv) Psychokinesis is defined as a fi@ 'i,nter'play of' scores were improved if one assumed they were calling. thoughts and material objects, most often the ability of the symbols on the card after the one in use. Unfortuflate-@ pvjor,bf@,ari object. ghtjo. influelkc.'e JAe 1@h At was, never possible to determine in advance when 4q els r@@ fd,`thYg&lh` @,vak, ing-place, Probabi lit ies were, a 0iddot': kltobibly, 86&440ifi@@.bf, re a sohw-whaticavalier -fashion" _d thiio 19j; re- @,A finalt"shortcorhihg of, these, experliffidnts, fliio-,yback) she Jearns that at that moment the child had been in- volved in an accident and is now hospitalized. Such events seem too real and personal, to those involved, to be dismissed as mere coincidence. Consideration is rarely given to those nurricrous times when a similar "feeling" turns out to be unrelated to any happening-such occur- rences are forgotten at once. Furthermore, the lack of specific details of the actual event in the premonition is usually ignored or even altered in the retelling to indicate a more accurate "vision" than that which may have, in fact, occurred. Further indications of the existence of an extrasensory facility appeared in the form of demonstrations of appar- ent telepathic communication. In the late 1800s@ scien- t.ists reported enthusiastically on exhibitions of telepathy by the four teen-age daughters of a Rev. Andrew Mae- reight Creary: contents of closed boxes were divined, selected cards named, and selected people's names cor- rectly identified by any of the girls who were out of the room when the selections were made.' Controversy raged, but it was not until many years later that the full truth was revealed: the sisters had been signaling each other through coughs, sniffles, and a variety of subtle body motions. It had all been a joke, but by that time there were dozens of imitators, and thousands of believ- ing spectators, and the ESP movement had begun. (Scien- tific American has a recent note"' ointing out that, ear- p lier, Michael Faraday spent some tirne uncovering the de- ceptions of the so-called psychics of his day, without dis'- suading any confirmed believers.) Research into ESP was put into a laboratory setting by J. B. Rhine of Duke University. The most common ex- periments are conducted with a special set of 25 cards, containing five each of five different symbols: a circle, a cross, a square, three wavy lines, and a star. These cards can be simply turned facedown in a stack; the subject tries to determine what symbol is on each card without seeing the faces (thus testing the subject's clairvoyance and/or precognition). Alternately, one subject (or the ex- perimenter) can took at the cards, one at a time, and at- tempt to "send" the symbols, via telepathy, to another subject. Tests of psychokinesis are usually performed with dice. Due to the lack of a theoretical model of the ESP pro- cess, performance of any subject on these experiments is ordinarily compared with the null hypothesis, that is, the results to be expected if no special phenomena were oc- cuffing, However, the inevitable subjects scoring above -`vfff6u s e xper irnenters@' tended to show that those favow disposed toward ESP sometimes reported higher, scores for a:given.subject than did skeptical experimenters, and, the subjects were often able to cheat directly. Some pre-i cautions were taken to reduce this possibility, but, as Dr.. Rhine reports,' "Elaborate precautions take their, toll ... . ." In other words, ESP ability drops, owing tw, the delicacy of the phenomenon and the sensitivity of the subjects, when precautions against cheating are used. The suggestion that perhaps, in fact, some cheating had been suppressed apparently was not seriously considered. A final point on the history of ESP should be noted..@ Throughout the past half-century, professional magicians have often reproduced so-called extrasensory effects by undetectable, but wholly physical methods. While produc- ing an effect by one means does not rule out its produc- tion by another, a proper test of ESP must rule out, as far as possible, the clandestine use of any physical process.':: Often, scientists are not sufficiently versed in the methods of deception to properly rule out certain innocuous- seeming ploys, and employing persons trained in fooling.,l the.public as observers might be beneficial. In this re- gard, it should be noted that Uri Geller, the ESP expo- nent mentioned earlier, was a nightclub magician before he achieved his present notoriety. IV. SUGGESTIONS FOR A LECTURE Alecture on. ESP can be based on some of the points ' made in the previous section. Reading a few quotations at the lecture's opening by those who have experienced par ticularly dramatic spontaneous "ESP" occurrences sets - the mood appropriately. After talking about the earlytff experiments, it,is well to do some demonstrations, just as would be done for a discussion of some physical phenomenon, The form of the demonstrations should f ol-, low closely, although in a much abbreviated form, the typical experiments done in the past in the search for. ESP. At least one experiment should utilize a statistical analysis; the class should be prepared for this from earl.e lectures in kinetic theory or atomic structure. A variety ESP phenomena should be touched on, and one experi- ment should purposely be done in a manner that seems to R rule out "cheating." The following three demonstrations have been found to work well in this context. All are performed with a stan- dard set of ESP cards. A. Group experiment in clairvoyance/precognition one or two standard deviations from the mean expected The instructor places five cards facedown, one at a on a random basis are traditionally subjected to further time, without looking at their faces. As each is set down, testing, and some seemingly incredible runs of correct the students write one of the five ESP symbols on a sheer calls have been recorded in this fashion. A high-scoring of paper, as their "hunch" for that card. The instructor, Appp9yJeAYf 96-00787ROO0200080051-8 2001103/26 : CIA-RDP 0. ecember 197.5 S. L, kag Y, 2 Apprvvedf@pr R91-0,4 P91/031,,6: A,-RDP96-,007874 00200080051-8 Pf! then shows the cards, one at a time, and the students note TIable 1. Probab-iiiIti es for randomly gu6singV d )f which qne,,they matched properl@. The scores of all stu- five symbols, and five cards are guessed. SP'symbols'. here are dents on@' th" %SMoa"rid @"`T NO se, are di§@ ts are u ated ir cussed briefl d"i ,,y In a mode ate-sized class, several 9to - ent§" Pfl Number guesse&` T?Ncti6n of pooulatilon.' Fraction of population 91 will have gotten three out of five correct, Which violates @'orrectly achieving this nurnkr withforward targctingO the students' sense that one out of five i s'. the best that 0.08 n could be expected; one or more students rky,49VC four 0 0.33 or 0.41 0.26 Irri mdi **A. jr 11 0.35 U A N down to 3/5, B. Experiment in telepathy The instructor holds up cards, one.at a time, with their targeting is allowed (see Table 1). faces to the class, asking them all Trickery on the sec- to thin .k of the symbol " ond experiment is then admitted ( on that card. The first symbol is correctlyI. even have, right here called by the ' ' in my lecture notes, instructor, even though he cannot see Get four out of five, it. The students are since getting " all five would appear too suspicious! asked to keep score of how well the ). A list of several instructor does- " " possible ways the these scores can later be compared cheating to see if any "experi- could have been ac- complished may be presented: having menter bias" has crept in. In this an assistant among demonstration the in- , the students sending signals-, using structor hits on four out of five cardsa small mirror to catch much to the , a glimpse of the faces of the cards., amazement of the class. Of course, using cards whose to assure that result , backs are marked to indicate the symbol some subterfuge is employed (as explainedon the front; in the Appen- having a prearranged order to the cards; dix), but all will be admitted later, etc. It is not during the discussion necessary to reveal which method you period, actually employed; this list shows how easilv the effect could have been C. Psychokinesis/clairvoyance effect achieved. The final "experiment" is also revealed as a fraud, since purely physical means were . employed here, possibility that the instructor is too; however, after this disclaimer, "cheating" leaving the students Since the may come tothe students' minds at thiswith one remaining bit of mystery is point, a third much more effective demonstration is done that is apparentlythan a complete explanation Of the out of his hands. method employed. One card of each symbol is taken from ' the set and placed Following the discussion of the. experiment, the com- out of sight behind the lecture table.parisons with physical science methodology Each of four stu- can be made dents is allowed to select one symbol explicitly. Material from Sec. Ill can and seal it in an be used as a start in envelope while the instructor is at this direction. The analysis can the back of the room. conclude with remarks on The envelopes are mixed, and the instructor. then proceeds some of the current controversial aspects of ESP study, as to tear open one envelope at a time, outlined at the beginfling of that section. gaze at the symbol, The recent dis- and point out the student that had missal" (for faking experimental results) selected it. After three of the director students have thus been matched with of the research institute founded by their chosen sym- J. B. Rhine may be bol, only one student remains; the pointed out as an example of the,continuing instructor therefore ob- difficulties of viously knows which student chose the this field of investigation. last symbol. However, he demonstrates a final telepathic flash by nam- ing, instead, the symbol, while it V. REPRISE OF PRELUDE is still scaled in the en- velope. Again, a page has been taken When I wrote the prelude, I was thinking from the magician's red, rose, manual, but the effect at that moment and chair ' What did vou write down? is sheer incredulity. Among the hun- The straight forward approach of the dreds of subtle hues, flower varieties, physicist demands and items of furni- that the fact that trickery was going ture, did you hit any of those I thought on be revealed, but of? The vast the gullibility of the public in the majority of students having that question face of the famous on an exam in " " "mind readers the past hit at least one; many hit and "clairvoyants two, and a few even of the past can most easily be appreciated when one has, got all three! Is this a demonstration himself, been "gul- of ESP? Discuss. led," Any "magic" effects can be employed for these purposes, but those described above APPENDIX: THE "MAGIC SHOW" have been found to lend themselves particularly well to the ESP format. Their modus operandi is described in the The second and third effects suggested Appendix, together as demonstra- with some suggestions on their presentation.tions for a lecture on ESP are performed by using very ' simple methods, However, the mode of presentation is D. Analysis very important; any similarities between the appearance of these demonstrations and a typical magic show will de- The demonstrations are now analyzed. stroy the atmosphere which is such an A discussion of important part of the expected probabilities for the the lecture. Thus all words and gestures distribution Of Correct must be coni- guesses in the first experinient shouldpletely natural. be presented, not- ing the increased chances for success Any of the methods listed in the discussion when "forward of the Approved For Release 2001/03/26 : C IA-RDP96-00787ROO0200080051-8 Am. J. Phys. Vol. 43, No. 12, DecemberS. L. Man / 10,31 197.5 Anp For Releas 1/03/26: C-IA-ROP,,96-007874000200080051-8 hroved _&@00 " ex tere Va erim nt ma in fact kin be em d d r f s l at thei rd it i le im ) b l e cour . oo oye r ca , or Y e y, e i s a s p , o p s, y g p However, the simplest by far is to matter to note subtly the unselected haye a subtle method symbol card remam- of marking on the backs of the ESP :,ling behind the table. Having symbol cards,-,,Tbe ; thus accounted for all but ' oce- one symbol, that one must be in symbols themselves suggest an easily the fourth student's en- memorized pr dure: the circle is drawn with one velope, and you announce the symbol stroke; the cross with before tearing open two; there are three wavy lines; the the envelope and showing that you square has four sides; were, indeed, correct. and the star is five-pointed. Thus, The effect of the last trick is marks. representing.' usually so striking that it 1-5, respectively, are needed. In would be anticlimactic to explain fact, using no mark at, it. A blanket admission '. all in place of the 5 produces a furtherof guilt, of trickery by pure physical simplificari6fi. means, is enough to & , ,X..&,SP, while leav- A@s ,Ok,A9iR%,b @ofrtbo, cords 404jna of ling a Ig j s- &g as r hO M1@4 _f"y pliefiett t @@Oh 1pire d. @Tl)@ df U.141UP it-, pitis bi pfjkeV i, the ever ' o 4, ?,Plcjdn th a, t. ts 1A141 Ifni !04ow 9 the *61ej The other effect, guessing correctly IM. Zeilik ll,, Am. J. Phys. 42, which student 538 (1974); 41, 961 (1973). picked each symbol, is equally simple,2E, E. Snyder, Physical Science although it look for Today (Merrill, Columbus, OH, ' t much less possible for the instructor1973), Chap. 1. ' to "cheat." The R. Targ and H. Puthoff, Nature (Lond.) 251, 602 (1974); see also G., method depends not on markings on M. Walker, Electronics 37, 82 (7 the cards, but rather February 1974). on markings on the envelopes! Simple 1C. Reynolds and Y. Joel, Pop. Photogr. fingernail marks 74, 74 (1974); see also edito- on one edge indicate the four envelopes-zero,rial accompanying publication of one, two, Ref. 3, above. and three marks. In order to avoid 'The KirlianAura, edited by S. Krippner suspicion, the en- and D. Rubin (Anchor, Gar- velopes are taken to each student, den City,.NY, 1974). separately, by the in- structor as he selects them for the 1J. B. Rhine and J. 0. Pratt, ParapsychologyIf demonstration. He then (Thomas, Springfield, IL, simply remembers the order the students1957); Parapsychology, fi-om Duke were chosen, to FRNM, edited by J. B. Rhine which corresponds exactly to the markings(Parapsychology, Durham, NC, 1965). on the en- 7L Le Shan, The Medium, the Mystic, velopes. The instructor can then moveand the Physicist (Viking, New on to the back of York, 1974). the room while the students, one at 1 a time (apparently to P. Davidovits, Communication (Holt, avoid collusion, but in fact to preventRinehart, and Winston, New the exchange of . York, 1972), Appendix 11. envelopes) select and seal their cards9M. Christopher, ESP, Seers and in the envelopes. It Psychics (Cromwell, New York, is a good precaution always to talk 1970). about "the en- velope," not "your envelope." After IOSci; Am, 232, 52 (January 1975). returning to the front and identifying the first threeI'Sci. Am. 231, 68 (September 1974). students (in arbitrary %y-q F@p e -RDP96-00787ROO0200080051-8 P1103126: CIA rm. 3o Ar 1082 /APP ecem er S. L. Blatt ifiqutry, u'Scuss'On QJ some subjects which _Ice resemblance to science is proposed. The .,search into extrasensory perception appears as such a counterexample, allowing for zparisons which illuminate the subject of in science while maintaining high student ,ture )wggesti.ons, including demonstrations, d. _0 0 I 0 CL -n 0 M C:I ,6ng Eaestion appears at the beginning of a iationa introductory physics for nonsciencu reacW also is invited to answer the question edingN i,,e wr f j6 in the spaces provided, the name o h 0 In in or .f the following categories: A c ~ fIq JRer . . . ~ piV of furniture. . . . (D :)UCTIPN @ives 8a course in introductory physics for ludent;goften require that, in addition to the matt%j of physics, an explicit attempt be o,,ase tIM students' awareness of the processes .:h sc§tific knowledge is obtained. While codil&tions of these processes under the fI I'sc&tific method" result in too incom @.e to 8very useful, the experiences of the Aselve0oduring the course usually provide a -Ition I discussions of the characteristics of I - TPx interplay of observations, experi- buildffia, deductions, and "accidental" dis- @)e ncMd in laboratory sessions, lectures and Istorical developments, and all other aspects . However, if any development of a critical Ired-such as the ability to sort out what is khat is not science in the modern twentieth Of Physics Vol. 43, No. 12, December 1975 Iecrs. catastrophic cosmological events in the recent his- torv of the earth, and related lore could be introduced, similarlv. to compare with the nature of physical theory and observation. The subject of extrasensor 'v perception, more tarniliarlv known as ESP., has been found to be especia Ily good for this purpose. The remainder of this paper is devoted to providing (a) some background on ESP , with some of the contrasts between its historical de- velopment and the methods followed by physicists, and (b) an outline for a lecture on the subject, complete with denionstrations. This lecture format has been used for the past several years; it has never failed to capture the in- terest of the students and has always generated long and fruitful discussions concerning criteria for evidence, mod- els of reality, and the whole gamut of science methodolo- gy- 111. BACKGROUND ON ESP The subject of ESP has been, historically, a controver- sial one. A new wave of interest has recently emerged, accompanied bv a host of new books and new claims (both of authenticity and of fraud). The recent publication of a study of the phenomena produced by one well-known ESP practitioner, Uri Geller, appearing in a prestigious scientific journal,3 has been countered by articles in the general public media' suggesting where the.scientists may have been misled. Photographic studies5 of a mysterious 11 aura" surrounding living objects, said by some to be re- lated to the "thought-transfer" process and by others to be simple, predictable electrostatic effects, have been made with impressively complicated apparatus. All the appearance of conventional scientific investigation is pres- ent, and it is truly a challenge to a .ttempt to analyze these new efforts in an old field objectively. However, the interest generated by this revival of ESP research provides an excellent opportunity to introduce the subject in its his- torical context, and to contrast its development with that of physics. Background reading on ESP should include works by investigators in the field itself,' proponents of the scien- tific merits of the @indings of those researchers,' and crit- ics who reject these studies in the context of the sci- encess or of professional "magic.'" All agree in linking' any definition of ESP to the thought process, and several manifestations of the nonsensory transfer of thought have been given distinctive names: (i) Clairvo.vance is usually defined as the ability to have knowledge of events which are taking place in the present, but about which no sensory input can be had. (ii) Precognition is defined as the ability to have Copyright 0 19175 by the American Association of Phvsics Teachers / 1079