Approved For Release 2000/08/08 CIA-RDP96-00789RG,0160214001-6 :1 ("E NC 1:(-LJIRC..-,*I::G AND ME.-T+,l01*)1,: TNIVOLVE1) . ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... .. . ..... ..... ..... ..... .... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... . ..... ..... ..... .... ..... ..... ..... .... ..... ..... .... ..... . ... ..... ..... ..... ..... ... . ..... ..... .... 11.1 .. ..... ..... ..... .. . ..... .... .. .. ..... ..... ..... ..... .... ..... ..... .... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... 1 C I\i:; 1 C) jvk...tv E3`3 I j. 'T C) E)F- 1::~ 1::- 1:::, "1" :1. :1, Bf:.') ill C::.'T' Id CY.D C)I IC."JY:: V'Y ..... ..... ..... .... ..... ..... ..... ..... .... ..... ..... .... ..... ..... .... ..... ..... ... .. ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... .... ..... ..... .. .. ..... .... .... ..... .. .. ..... .... ..... ..... ..... ... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ... . ..... ... . ..... ..... ..... ... . ..... ..... ig !: .~ -) r-, t. ci e V 1' C.",'R V esi: :I. C i"1 T --I cI 1 1-.) 1:: J. t e c) f t. c) 1.-1 1-1 1..) c:1 e LJ 1.::' J. 1 1\1 1:::- 1...:: V 1:::~ W I.:.. 1::~ Nc..; I:::.ru::r-vI::)-tec:I CI C-) IVI Ill 1:,::* 1\1 'T Svi e w r i ii:) cI e v e.1. c) I-) i ri g 'I. i t.-, e fn c.) I,-- e J. 'I. A.:. y :I. ri r.-, J. I.-.) ut'l. aJ. 1'.1 c:I m, c) cI ej. rI ci un a t I,-- i ~.-a ii:~ W r k C.'..~ cJ :1. J. t...1 J wi t... 1.-I fni c! ai r- (Y., I::) cl iricl aricl c.)ri* parner, 'as we'Ll. IV, LJI*1'I-F:I."f' kh; A cler-I 1. 1. V i:AAC: C: LA n:L I c! vi Ilain ~;:J. i gl.'It.. cli f: 4: J. c:uT -(-,-.y (J j. st...J. rigt..O. sl.'I j. rk..4 I: r- c-) al I. ...... H. Vi 1::, (A J. c: ul (A L) L Vj 1'.1 1-f-I c) If j. t n r- 1-1 cl V 1. Vj (-,-? 1'.. u g g i..:i i c)r)~:.i Iny tc) tc) t-. Vi J. ~.A i:;i lo c c: t. I IANDI E: VTA C, ONI Y .................. ............... .......... . .. ...... ... ... ............. ............. ... ........................................... 1\1 C.) F:' C) IR 1\1 L~ T i I C., I.... - c% c1:::- C 1"' R f. .4 y D"...) Approved For Release 2000/08/08 CIA-RDP96-00789ROO1602150001-6 Approved For Release 2000/08/08 : CIA-RDP96-00789ROO1602150001-6 . ..... .... C r:," V 7' RA I 1\1 T N R 1() MAY C-38 DURING TODAY'S TRAINING, I f:--IRS-1" I:-'EI._.T _I"1-1A"1' TI E. 1:31.11]' 1 1AD MOTION, MOVEMENT, AND MOBILITY. I FELT A FAST MOIJON. I FELT THAT THE SITE WAS AIRY AND LIGHT. I FEL...'*r SPACIOUSNESS AND VASTNESS. I ASSOCIATED BLACK AND NAVY BLUE WITH THE-- 611-E. I At.-SO ASSOCIATED WHITE AND TWINKI ING WITH 111E SI_I'T__. _1'+-IE SI"I"E HAD A VACUUM SOUND. 1-14E SITE WAS HARI.) AND 11" FEI-A" SMOOTP1. I COULD ALSO FEEL SLIDING AND GLIDING. 1-11E OVERALL F--EV-:.I..JNG WAS CI ... EAN ANI) I COULD HEAR MLJI:)*It:,' SOUNDS. 1'. FEL_I- 1"HAT WERIH.. 0(`CLJRREI\1CI:_:::S H E' 1: *1" E IN TWO Al B[.-'.:'S, I OBJECT''IF11--1) LUXURIOUE3 AND W(.-jI\1D1:..RFUL. THE SITE CONSISTS OF A STRLJC'TUI:."~E C)R STRUCI-URES. TT-IE G'1'*Fk"UC_I"UJ"*k"E WAS ROUND, HARD, AND (,XJ1:-'ZVING. THE STRU('.1TL.JRF:.' WAS SCIENTIFIC AND A MUSEUM. i IN AN AOL BI-,-, I OB,JE(::.'TIF'--.I-.El:) BIG DIPPER. I TI-k-.1\1 OBJI ,'-CTIFIED BIG WI-IIT'F.**.. P:LI_J ARS. I TT*'_'-:*N 0DJEC'TIFIF.:.D PEOPI I---- IN A L_AF_-,'G[:. TOWN. GOING BACK TO THE STRLJ(:.-"I'_LJr,-ZE, I ()BJECT1FII:-D ~:)TLJDYING, I-EARNING, J-.- .11\1 AN BY SAYING BIG. THERE WAS GREEN LAWNS AND O1\11---- HAD TO LOOk' UP AT THE AND WALK UP TO THE P11-1 ... ARS. I COULD -1-1---IE AIR GOING IN AND AROUND THE PILLARS. T HE PI L [-ARS ARE C'.'ONTAINED IN A CERTAIN AREA. THE PILLARS WERE Pi ACED IN A CIRCLE. TI IE PILLARS HAD HISTORICAL VALUE AND T'1-11:...RE WERE B[.-AC[-.*'. MARKINGS) AROt..)ND THE PILLARS. THE PII-LARS REMINDED ME OF A MONUMENT. P11 I AR(::)' REMINDED ME 01::;' A MAN THAT IS DF::'.AD NOW. I F)A.*I.'f) A THERE ARE`- ANIMALS HERE. IT VERY I::T-EASAN-1- HERE'%'., THE PILLARS REM1NDED ME oi- i-jisTORY AND THE ST'Ruc,rui,~E REMINDED ME- 4- A SC'IENCE. I FELT THAI- THE PII-LARS AND THE STRUCTURE WERE MAN----IvIADL-" AND T'HEY WERE NOT ROCKS. .1 FELT THAT I WAS IN SAN I--RANC.IS(',0 (::)R WASHING"I"(31\1 Approved For Release 2000/08/08 : CIA-RDP96-00789ROO1602150001-6 twK I ~V, '1/5 .5 L), Approved For Release 2000/08/08 : CIA-RC(P96-OOi69'R'O036OP1 t&1 -6 f ,, ~~ V " Approved For Release 2000/08/08 : CIA-RDP96-00789ROO1602150001-6 Approved For Release 2000/08/OSGCIA-F 1-60, Approved For Release 2000/08/08 : CIA-RDP96-00789ROO1602150001-6 2000/08/08 CIA-RDP96-00789ROO1602150001-6 C- L-1 Icte -S. c,' 4s - c-11 -Z- Approved For ~~e~~2DqO/~~- t-WR()P96-00789 ROO 1602150001 -6 Approved For Release 2000/08/08 CIA-RDP96-00789ROO1602150001-6 "VO cx C', Approved For Release 2000/08/08 CIA-RDP96-00789ROO1602150001-6 Approved For Release 2000/08/08 CIA-RDP96-00789ROO1602150001-6 Approved For Release 2000/08/08 CIA-RDP96-00789ROO1602150001-6 Approved For Release 2000/08/08 : CIA-RDP96-00789ROO1602150001-6 I,-") Approved For Release 2000/08/08 : CIA-RDP96-00789ROO1602150001-6 Approved For Release 2000/08/08 CIA-RDP96-00789ROO1602150001-6 Approved For Release 2000/08/08 CIA-RDP96-00789ROO1602150001-6 Approved For Release 2000/08/08 : CIA-RDP96-00789ROO1602150001-6 Approved For Release 2000/08/08 : CIA-RDP96-00789ROO1602150001-6 Approved For Release 2000/08/08 : CIA-RDP96-00789ROO1602150001-6 I Approved For Release 2000/08/08 : CIA-RDP96-00789ROO1602150001-6 Approved For Release 2000/08/08 : CIA-RDP96-00789ROO1602150001-6 Approved For Release 2000/08/08 : CIA-RDP96-00789ROO1602150001-6 Approved For Release 2000(WO~ W^~RD-P"~89ROO1602150001-6 Approved For Release 2000/08/08 CIA-RDP96-00789ROO1602150001-6 '-;i89ROO1&t1 Aip~vecl FoNk4ease 20fWO8108 CIA-WDP96-0 ~0001 -6 fJ~ CD Approved For Release 2000/08/0.8 CIA-RDP96-00789ROO1602150001-6 Approved For Release 2000/08/08 : CIA-RDP96-00789ROO1602150001-6 ) ~L, - -~ \ct Approved For Release 2000/08/08 : CIA-RDP96-00789ROO1602150001-6 Approved For Release 2000/08/08 : CIA-RDP96-00789ROO1602150001-6 f ~) / r C.7~- 15~' 0--~ 6 /' ~S IV /- if- Approved For Release 2000/08/08 : CIA-RDP96-00789ROO1602150001-6 nprovedhor Release 2#00/0 B/08 CM-~DP96!!~0789 ROO IM2,j ~000 1 -6'~~ Vc-~C\~ INN~ Approved For Release 2000/08/08 CIA-RDP96-00789ROO1602150001-6 Aj~ Rplose 200OY98tO -"6-0078-9-RpOl 60AS0~6 3roved For~ 8 :CIA --e /c, Q-c- Approved For Release 2000/08/08 CIA-RDP96-00789ROO1602150001-6 Approved For Release 2000/08/08 : CIA-RDP96-00789ROO1602150001-6 6 /z--/ - e- cj- 61,-- ~:S p'- IS jdc/,/~ Approved For Release 2000/08/08 : CIA-RDP96-00789ROO1602150001-6 Apv;~~ecl Forf!~ase 2CPT/08 CIA~-RDP96,T89ROOW150001-6 Y-1 Approved For Release 2000/08/08 CIA-RDP96-00789ROO1602150001-6 I-S rl`o-~Vor Re*ask2000/O*8 \.CIA-RDPS"- 0789RO!r,021500W" App Approved For Release 2000/08/08 CIA-RDP96-00789ROO1602150001-6 Approved For Release 2000/08/08 CIA-RDP96-00789ROO 012150001-6 Oc 16~ c,\- Approved For Release 2000/08/08 CIA-RDP96-00789ROO1602150001-6 Approved For Release 2000/08/08 CIA-RDP96-00789ROO1602150001-6 Approved For Release 2000/08/08 CIA-RDP96-00789ROO1602150001-6 Approved For Release 2000/~868 CIA-RDP96-00789ROO1602150001-6 a-A c~- Approved For Release 2000/08/08 CIA-RDP96-00789ROO1602150001-6 Approved For Release 2000/08/08 : CIA-RDP96-00789ROO1602150001-6 ,'7( c ) -o )-' 1 .. 012-- x K x x >~, \)( "/, ~Y\ )(\ Approved For Release 2000/08/08 : CIA-RDP96-00789ROO1602150001-6 Approved For Release 2000/08/08 C IA-RDP96-00789 ROO 1602150001 -6 S~) Nc,-~ C r^-\. ~ r---s 0'\~ cq C, ~jj -4~ Approved For Release 2000/08/08 CIA-RDP96-00789ROO1602150001-6 Ci Approved For Release 2000/08;4 (EIA-RDP96-00789ROO1602150001-6 Approved For Release 2000/08/08 CIA-RDP96-00789ROO1602150001-6 Approved FIOW.Relea se'22M, 108/0,8: CIA-RDP96-007-89RO016Q2150001,-6 CFjYRGHT v 7' - 17 K7~P 7, -1 v7~ A. iAZ 0- :.o R-9 go~ Nw ,RE AlMnY ZZ 17,z Pr 7~ z-4-Ar~ WV 4 7W',- ji" K-1 > One of the mysteries of Stonehenge is hou, the huge stones u,ere placed in position. The drateings below explain a possible Jnethod of erecting a Iriliihon. For each of the uprights a bole is dug; then The stone is hauled into posi- 1;nn nn rollerv. Lhp hnitoyn end is tibbed into the hole. The total lack of agreement among the experts hardly M inspires confidence: if Stonehenge was so manifesdy a structure designed for predicting - eclipses, there n 0 should be at least some meeting of minds on how it was done. In 1857, In order to settle whether cunei- form had really been deciphered, the Royal Asiatic Society challenged scholars to submit translations of a newly discovered inscription; four did so, the re- CD sults were found so alike that there could no longer to 0 be room for doubt, and the issue was declared sec- tled. When the astronomers who have been studying Stonehenge come up with at least convergent ideas, 00 then we may be readier to believe that its priests knew how to predict eclipses. 00 and the stone is heaved into rerlical position by hundreds of men on long ropej. The lintel stone is :4' v,.~en raisedby levers, in sinall stages, as a platforrn is built up under it,- finally it is moved sideu-,qs until mortises on its underside fit into the tenons on the tops of uprights. its original position, one is fallen flat, and two have disappeared.) Newham and Hawkins point out that the short sides of the rectangle are parallel with Stonehenge's main axis. So, when one looks along them to the northeast, one sights, just as along the axis, upon the point of midsummer sunrise. If one looks along them in the opposite direction, coward the southwest, one sights upon the point of mid- winter sunset. And the line of the long sides marks, in the southeast direction, the southernmost point at which che full moon rises at midsummer, and, in the northwest direction, the northernmost point at which It sets at midwinter. Both men were struck by the same idea as to why Salisbury Plain was chosen for Zv 9~ 31 E- 'J MICHAEL CPJJG THE AILAS Of E011 81 1CQUE71A HAWXES -DQALI~ KINDEqSLEY LID Happily, some of Hawkins' findings do converge with those of another student of Stonehenge- although he was. unaware of Jr. Stonehenge offered sighilines, Hawkins argues, not only for the midsum- the site; at its latitude the lines of midsummer sunrise and moonrise cross at right angles and so a rectangu- lar disposition of observation points is possible. The claim chat Stonehenge was so sophisticated an H 'Hi'm A m veloped the ski I he Ill to ideV3,fy C erable accuracy. If, then, this uniqueOne, ~aii 1 4 number of specific as M Iml 91 was set on a site delibmatcly tions, what of its huniMer rel and alignments, even f l4ne objects of veneration a&1 n( m, astronomically useful? get( WC dropped by a Scor pwfe!sor makes Hawkins' seem 9e i fi stream of articles bulge ( Ut ander Thom has tried a dc mo hirs and cromlechs of Zrriu in 00 tion to whatever religi rpi I IOUs p I instruments for determining c1 rings not only of the sun an( m( W~! CPYRGHT .11 1/e, &14 777-0: 7 ~~-7~777~~_577 ,!7 r _T _T Ikk 7.: 1A nehenge, the ruins of an ancient religious center and astronomical observatory. Sightings from different itions and along the various stones were used io predict astronomical events with remarkable accuracy. ONEHENGE, sto-ri'lieril', i's the ruins of a Stone ,4ge monument situated on Salisbury Plain in southern England. It is one of the niost imposing aid complex of the 40 to 50 prehistoric circular P iclosures or "henge" monuments known in the E ritish Isles. The most striking features of Stonehenge are e reiriains of a great circle of lintel-capped r ctanundar stone L-011111111S siii7ounding a still t Liler "'horseshoe" of trilithons, each trilithon misisting of two columns supp I)rting the ends of a horizontal top piece, or lintel. The tallest t ilithon rises 24 feet ( 7.3 meters ) above ground, d each of the uprights weighs up to 50 tons. 3ther conspicuous features of the monument i iclude the Slaughter Stone, the Heel Stone, the Iluestones, and ditches. Many of the elements have changed through tine as the result of natural forces or human tivity. Standing stones have toppled, ditches ve silted, and additions and changes have been Made by the prehistoric peoples to whom this Ste was an important religious center during the Aeolithic Period and the Early, Bronze Age, mughly from 1900 to 1400 B. C. Speculation on and study of Stonehenge have ()ntinued unabated from the time that it was f rst mentioned in the literature shortly after the 1orinan Conquest of 1066. Its construction has leen attributed to ruany of the carious pcoples ho hitNe inhabited the Bjiti~h Isles. The most 'idely held belief was that Stonehenge was built IV the Britons, a Celtic people, for druidical rites. is now known, however. that the Celts and l1eir druid priv,~ts did not come to Britain until 1,000 years after Stonchenve was abandoned. The first WAuteCtUral oudy (,f the site was "ad(- in the I I th L-PuttiFy I by the Fnizlish archi- '(:t Inigo Jones at thc command of King James Nfore accurate Sllr%ell; ObSenatiOns Were conducted subsequently by, such British anti- quaries as John Aubrey, Sir Richard Colt Hoare, and William M. Flinders Petrie. The numbers ~iss4med by Petrie to the various holes and stoues are still employed in identifying them. Archaeological research lids provided the most trustworthy, evidence concerning not only the several phases of constniction and their dates, but also the cultures to wliich they belom,,, In- tcipreting the original function of Stonehenge is partly an archaeolo~!ical matter and partl\ an astronomical problem. Sci(-ntific excavation and restoration began in the 20th CLAItUr), CSP(?Ciall\. Nvith the work of 'Xilliain llawle~ from 1919 to 1926. The most inct iculous investigations were conducted jointly bN Richard J. C. Atkiiison, Stuart Piggott, and iolin F. S. Stone from 1950 to IY54. The result of these exca%ations was an extreinely complicated picture of successiNe pe- riods of construction. Construction. The. history of StoneheriFe may be, divided into three main periods. The first mai .or construction, or Period 1, took place be- tween 1900 and 1700 B. c. It was accomplished by people belonging to the secondary Neolithic culture, a blend of earlier hunting and gathering peoples and the first groups Nvi .th an agricultural econorny to appear in the British Isles. This construction consisted of a circular ditch and bank about 320 feet (97 meters) in diameter, broken by- an entrance causc~xav from the north- east. Just inside the bank an8 concritric with it was dug a Circle Of 56 equally spzuvd holes- called the Auhrev holes for their 17th centur.% disew. erer John jkubrey. The hole,, were filled with chalk rubble and', in some justances, ~.vith cremated human bones. Charcoal from one hole yielded it radiocarbon date of 1848 11. c. -_ 275 years. The 16-foot (4.9-im-ter) tall Heel Stone Was crected at this tilue Or earlier, it short dj~- 751 15 )011 f47 =6Z F 8 '8 _C 'ApPrOV00- 6 P, 789R001 0001-6 ApprovedPqr e.--20dO/W0_8-.-: -6A'RDP96 70018,9 ROO 16021500-01-6, 7: -.7 CF 71,w STONEHENGE 752 h( art. tance outside the ditch to tile Dort '1'l C joints' %~'illljll this CiTUIC is the CCntlal ljoj,,(~sjj, 'cl Stone is a block. of sarm,n stone, a t\,pe f Of San five saisen trilithons referred to ('sto'le "Sed for Many Of the ]aTg(,r' stone 0tIlCr features, Sue clenlents in the 1110nuincrit. 11 as tile circles o The structure of Period 11 holes Outside the sarsen circle and a lc vi 11 t) 2, (about 1700-15()o horseshoe Of bluesto) s \ t does "(it now exist but (,all c hilitho', be jnfcrlCd a)p(,,ir to Iepre.,,(., j t 11 1 from tile c~Xistence within tile IatCT nod ificUtiolls ditch and the pi a n. The largest Of tile bIlleston".1, call:,d, ti., Aubrey hole circle of tile -Q- and -11" holes. Altai-Sto)1e, ]low lics under two fallUll t1ilitil" These holes forllj a double circle, 86 ft.(~t 26.2 'stories, Its oliginal location and function 11-ters) and 74 feet (22.5 nicters in dianlPiCT, urilnov,,ri, Thc builders of St )uelleng,. 11, 38 blue- alinost certaillIN. yncID W p 1, each Circle Originally containing jj~)Out stones. MariN of tjjeq(~ berS Of tile ]'-,IT))' ol 17, stones were, rciijoyed and A c Wessex culture, at tile tilne one of till. lll()l ditcl c s aS4,anced Huropeall &jilturcs used for later C-olist TO ct ions. Two parallel Or(', larw,. tej of dug outward fron, the 111ain entrance, forin , Out,,ije the were -rarican area. Othei- sites of this cu)t ing an avenue running northeast toward the point 1), graves, have produced biorizc RX bladv,~ a)" on the horizon at which the sun rises on mid- other artifacts TMInbling Strikingly in detail SUDIT)ICT day, or the sunnner solstice. Because rnany objects frorn central Eilro X Pe and \1\ of the absence of holes in the western part of cerjacan GTCCCC. Ili 1953 a carving of a broliz"( the double circle, it would appear that Stone- dagger sin-jilar in for-in to those used at _-7 henge 11 was never completed. The architects during the period of the shaft graves Nva,,'fo,u,( niust have belonged to the Beaker culture, col- on one of the sarsen stones. 0 11i zers who carne frorn the European continent As for the construction techniques of Stollf- at the end of the Neolithic Period, for shards of benge, inueb practical experinjentation has Beaker pottery have been found in association done with ,finple equipnient to deterinijii(- po, with the traces of this structure. sible inethods of transport arid the size of Ili, Period III (about 1500-1400 B, C. ) Witnessed labor force ilecded to illove and er(,Ct tll(- lar~T( the final an(] niost spedaculaT phases of construe- sarsens. G(-ological studies have shown that till tioll. One of thu pril-ICTll fc;lturcs is the 100- sarsens canie fron) Marlborough Downs, Sonw 2( foot (30.5-incter) circl 30 sarsen Stollc colunins. rijiles ( 32 ~-rn ) north of StonChenge. The Wilf, Fach colunin weighs about 25 toris~ nicasures Stories wcTe brought fr, ,Ili the Prescelly NJou,, 7 about 3 to 4 feet (0.9-1.2 incters) thick, 7 feet tains of southwestern XN ales, prol)aljl\ b~' '.C~t all( (2.1 inctcrs) wide, and 13 feet (4 ineters) high; then overlaiid by sledges running on rollers, I and i& capped by a continuous circle of horizontal has lj(-cn estfinated that it iiijglit require up"var(I lintels held in position by njortise and terion of 500 nien to pull a 50-ton stone up till, st(,ep(., 4 He stone Mound c s~irsen Cirel, C e, ~tion-stone St ',lectangle hov, 71~ 40 C ilk q Standing stone Y holes Fallen or missing ston( _x7 0 Auble ~ubley holes C, 0 1)0 F ue~ 700onni an,)i nnnm _ili A r%r%rr%%,rAnr4 Ce%r DAmign 2t n )nnni i M-101"t CPYRGHT A imminn-C t%A7 0 n M A-11% -4 & A 014 C 1% n 91 STONE'S RIVER, BATTLE OF-STONEWARE B c( to plcxi(~kj,l~ iftles of alol --it -It, and a , ,;]))all tl c trilitlim) arflil di ications of tlj(~ st mes, called t),(, vt fallen irilitholl "I (I f"''')('"011 art -)I b(-fige III W',e Farl) C011C Of tlj(. -t sde of thf. Nledi. hs cullure large ' z, ax bla(ies al,d kligly in detail, ;:I rope and \iv., Aing Of a I)ronz(. I scd at M"'cel'a'. Qa\V1, was"follrj(] ii(ples of Stolle. tation has beell dviennillc po~~. the ',iZ(- of th'. clect the larg,. shown that tll( -)ON\,rls, SOllic 20 jige. The blut,_ resuefl\ Moul'. ably bN, Sea a)l(l g oil. rollers, It require upwar(l% UP the steep('s I slone .ding 51one n Dr missing stone 50 Feel al mg the routc. Timbei crilixvork, levurs, qY,J,Y'jOP`l1s XVCrV considered adc(piatc for raising, toljc.~ to vertical positions and Placing lintuls on illuir tops, Function. The original function of this eX- traoldinarv mommicrit has been the subjoct of liuch Spe-culation. It has been thought of as a 11101111111unt, funeral of- otherwLse, to vadoiLs )cg- plidarv of- historic personages. It lj;Ls also been C~ol)sicl(,Ted to be the cellier of a religiolls clilt. causc of its orientation toward the rising sun, 13t 5(-jcntjsts have seen it as an alATODOMical obsen,a- jor~' Of "'0111C kill(], Archaeologists are if, geiieral agrcumclit that tlj(, site had both a religious arid an astronomical function. It is likely that the pionument. at Stonehenge, hallowed Gy its- caily use as a purely religious structure, becarrie niodi- fied gradually in its carly phases to perform astronomical functions as well-firsi to record the ad,,,(,,ijt of the summey solstice, then to predict culln.se, Moonrise, and probably eclipses, all as part Of a religious and agricultural jitual. In 1963, Gerald Ham,kins, an astronomer, iised a complit.ey to work, out all observations that could be madc by sighting along and through the various markers, stone posts, and opcilings be- tween uprights, inclucling four "station" stone I(x-ations that form a rectangle on die ljrj(, of the Aiibrc~y hoIcs. His cideu)atioms indicated "vith a]- )st perfect probabilit-y that Stonehenge can be used as all astronomical instru-nient to predict accurately, %vith adjustment of movable Marking stories orice a year, the moverilents of both sun arid n-joon as well as eclipses. Val-ious objections to the theory arid its implications have been raised bV aTChae0l0gLStS. 01le Of die iMpOl-lant one,, is tfic unlikelihood of the existence of such a sophisticated device, requiring tbe passhig on of acculmilawd observational data over a long period of time, in a culture that was othemrise oil a con- siderablv lower level of development than the lj(,aT-t 4 Bf-wize Age culture in die castern Mediterranean. DONALn F. BBOWN B0.51071 Uniluer'Aty FUYIIkCT Reading: Atl,in~on, Richard 3. C., Sion( b"71gC (Macnoillan 1956).. Ilawlins Gerald S., and White, John 13., Stonchung(, Decoded ~Doubleday 11465); 11C, ,Tle, M7illta)n FlinaeyS, Stone John F. S_ Wessc~x Before the CeUs ger )958). STONE'S RIVER, Battle of, iri the American Civil NVar, fought Dec. 31, 1862-jan. 2, 1863, about 30 miles (48 kin) southeast of Nashville, Tenn. It iv, often called the Battle of MurfreesboTo. A ha-,d-fought but indecisive corfflict, it bad no apparent influence on the strategic sihiation, but Pyesident Abraham Lincoln observed that if the Union Anny had been defeated, "the nation could scarcely have lived over it.,, After Gen. Braxton Bragg led an uxhsuccessful invasion of Kentucky in the autumn of 1862, be retired to Murfreesboro, in southeastern Tenriussce. Maj, Gen. '~Villiarrj S. Rosecrans, the ne\v c~onl- MUTider of the Union Arniv of the Cuiribel-h-ind, mgs based at INashville, Ea-tum Terluessce \vas faNorabl,, inclined to the Union. arid ffic high command in NVL;hington ,vas dcturl-nined to drive the Confederates from the region. Ulidt-T strong pressure for action, Rosecrans led lli,~ amiv oiit of Nashville on Dec. 26, 1862. Rain, fogs ~rfd Coi-Jederate cavalry patrols hill- dvred his advance, and his leading elciments did not approach Murfreesboro until the evening of the 29th. The next day, the two armics con- 753 fronted (-,,tell other in strength. Rosecrans, had about 45,0M njcij~ Bragg a little less than 40.000. Bragg dc~)loved his forces astride thc \vvst ford- of S if vs River, a f(-\,,- milvs nortliv"c"t of tf '111( the tONVll. - ))fill' Of thC111 'NCTU Oil the West bank, ))fit one division, about 5,000 rifen, -tvas oil the cast. Rosecrans concentratvd untiruly on the west side of the river. The battic plaiLs of. thu opposiny commanders were identical ill prmuiplu. 1--ach pUmcd to hold 'A'ith his right ming and attack with his left Nvilig, i seeking all Unvelopment of the cTicilly. Bragg struck first, abOllt 6 A. N1. oil Dec. 31. 11c (surprised the Union tro( -)s at the right end of the line; many were co3ing bi-cakfast. His assault gadicired momentum as reinforcements ar- rivcd. ]'lie Union right -,vws bent. back- at right angles to die left, and by mid;Lficri-toon the Union anny was compressed into a tight horseshoe "vith its baA- to the liver. But stout resistance and minor counterattacks had jolted the Confedcrates. Bragg called for die division on the cast bank of the Tiver to strengfh- en a last blow, but it, conimander did ]lot MOVe, fearing a Union attack. At a council that rLi gb t, sonic Union generals wished to retreat to Nash- villc, bill Rosecrans decided to )told. 01) Jan. 1, there Nvas. little figliting. Both arillies -,%ere exhausted and had suffered heavy losws. Tlic jjcxt day the only important action was east of Lhe river: ~Nl lure a Union force that had crossed fliere rcl-milsud a C0llfCdCTate attack. Bragg walized fl)at Rosecrans bad jr(,k-cived ammunition Old supphi-,. and oil Jan. 3 lie \vith- drew thl-OUgh MUrfreeSl-)TO alid j-'MCC-cdcd South. Bosecrans o(-cupicd the to,,,,Tn ]lilt did i)ol PUTS11C his foe. The situation lit Temiessee )UMabJed static for six moriths, but Ltv holding fast Rose- craris had avertiA xmhat wou]8 have been a serious defeat for the. Union at that stage of the xvar. The Union losses were about 12,800 men killed wounded arid missing. The Conft-derate caviiaities totaleA about 11,600. The Stories Biver Mitional Battlefield ncm occupies part of the 1)atfle site. In the Stones River (or Murfreesboro) National Cemeter), are graves of soldiers of both an i j i es. STONEWARE is a hard, rionporous ecrainic. 11 is made of a bigMy silicemis pacte, either a special clay or clay nlixed with otheT materials. such as ground flint, feldspar, or niarble. The paste is filed at a high tumptriaturt- until it vitrifies juses) to forn-i 8 no3iporni).~, glass;y sub- stance that gives a riiiging Nound \N)K,n struck. StoijevcaTC thu,, differs fion) soft, lcm-fired porous earthenware. 11 ClOsul~ 1-CS('11INes hard, high- fir~ed, rimipoyous po)celairi and is often called por- CelftDeOll.- NN-2YU. H0\'._CVCT, IWCaUSU StOlWWare is usually heavy and opaquc, with a bluish gray or re'dffisli LyoN'%,n color, NVesicni authorities I lave tcrided to distiiiguish it fron, porcelain, ~mhich they characterize a-, 0 ,jri~ traits) ocent, arid ,vhite. Stone\\art- inav have incised, impressed, oi- applied relief de-cOTadons. It may be iinglazed, or it nia,,- be ghqt-d to resist acidic liquids or for decoiation. A thin, slightly pitted salt glaze is common. ThicLer, colored lead gla7es are also found. Stonewares Nvere made in Shang China be. fore 1000 B,c. Heavy, porcelaneous stoncxvares of the Han, Varig, Sum, and ),uan dynasties had black or brown paintcd eCOTatiOrJ or relief decora- tion vitli celadoll green glaze. In die Ming period, API e, le-a--70-0-0-1-0- '00789ROO11602150001 6'