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The word prophet has at least two senses in the Old
Testament. There are ecstatic prophets, and classic prophets.

The ecstatic prophets are marked by odd, even frenzied
behavior. They do not appear in Israel before the time of Samuel;
they disappear after the 5th century B. C. They lived in groups,
with a sort of a leader. They wore a hairy mantle and a leather
girdle. (cf. 2 Kings 1:8). They often had scars, from wounds
inflicted by themselves or by others when in a frenzy:1 Kings
18:28. They sometimes went in for repeated cries (1 Kgs 18:26,
28). Some prophets, perhaps of the same type, resided at the
royal court. In 1 Samuel 19:20-14 David had just escaped, for the
time, the hands of Saul. But Saul sent messengers to arrest him.
The messengers found Samuel seeming to lead a band of frenzied
prophets. The messengers fell into frenzy too. Saul himself then
pursued, but the "spirit of God" came upon him, and he fell into
the same state. He took off his clothes and lay naked all that
day and night. Ecstatic prophets sometimes did this in their
frenzies.

The ecstatic type of prophets in the times of the kings were
often in large groups, of even 400 at a time. Their prophecy
might be induced by music. Kings often consulted them, and at
times they gave messages such as the kings wanted, showing that
at least in such cases there was nothing supernatural about their
state. In other cultures there are similar phenomena, e. g., the
dervishes.

Was this really a spirit of God that came upon them, or
merely what the on lookers would call that? It is hard to imagine
the spirit of God leading to uncontrollable frenzy and making a
king lie naked all day and night. In 1 Cor 14 St. Paul speaks
much of prophets, and compares the gift of tongues to them,
unfavorably for tongues. Paul speaks of a supernatural gift of
prophecy, and even then, in 14:32-33 we find: "The spirits of the
prophets are subject to the prophets; God is not a God of uproar
but of peace." Such then is the nature of really supernatural
prophecy, at least, such as it was known to St. Paul. Such an
example as that of 1 Samuel 19 does not seem to be of
supernatural origin especially since the spirits of the prophets
in 1 Samuel seem not to be subject to the prophets. As to the
statement that Samuel was leading them, he could have fallen into
a nonsupernatural frenzied state, or could have feigned it, to
protect David from Saul.

Even Abraham is called a prophet in Genesis 20:7 and the
whole people of Israel are called prophets in Psalm 105:15. But
the meaning does not seem to be ecstatic prophets.

Before the great prophets there were lesser nonecstatic
prophets, such as Samuel (except for the case mentioned), Elijah,
Elisha, Micaiah, and Nathan.

But it is clear that the classic prophets, of the type of
Amos, Hosea, Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel are very different
from the ecstatic prophets. Amos explicitly says (7:12-16) he is
not a prophet - he meant he was not an ecstatic prophet.

The call of a classic prophet may have come by way of a
vision (e. g., Isaiah 6), or also through an interior
communication. Such an experience enabled the prophet to
understand God in a way not given to others. Thus they had a
basis for judging events in God's way. So the prophet was a
spokesman for God. The image of Ezekiel eating a scroll given him
by God (2:8 - 3:3. cf. also Jer 15:16 and Rev./Apoc. 10:8-11) is
probably a way of expressing this. Foretelling the future was not
the basic work of a prophet, it was only part of his whole
message. We notice especially that in Ezekiel 37, several times
the prophet is told to <prophesy> to the dry bones -- which does
not at all refer to foretelling the future, but to announcing the
word of God.

Moses had foretold (Dt. 18:15): "The Lord your God will
raise up for you a prophet like me from among your own kinsmen.
You shall listen to him." This could have been taken to mean just
a great prophet, and might even refer to the great classic
prophets. But both Jews and Christians by the time of Christ
understood the promise of Moses to refer to a special individual
prophet: cf. John 6:14 (the people thought Jesus was that
prophet) and 7:40. So too did the Apostles understand it: Acts
3:22 and 7:37. Indeed Moses was said to have spoken to God face
to face, as one man would to another: Ex 33:7-11. So the great
prophet would be entirely unique, it would be Christ Himself.

However, we need to notice that even Moses did not see the
face of God. In Exodus 33:18-23 Moses asked to see God. But God
said He would put Moses in the hollow of the rock, and cover him
with His hand, so that Moses could see only "His back". But no
man could see His face. The prophet foretold by Moses in Dt.
18:15 really would see God fully, for Christ Himself is divine,
His human soul saw the vision of God from the first instant of
His human conception, as the Church teaches, e. g., Pius
XII, <Mystici Corporis> (cf. Wm. Most, <The Consciousness of
Christ>).

Further it seems possible to gather from these words of
Moses about the coming prophet who would be like Moses in
speaking to God face to face, that the intervening classic
prophets did not, at least, ordinarily speak to God thus. Rather
they obtained their messages by the general illumination
described above, or by interior locutions.

The books of the greatest prophets are collections of things
they had said on various occasions. The collections could have
been made by others, e.g., Baruch for Jeremiah. It is not always
easy to determine the original setting. And continuity may be
poor, especially in Jeremiah. The fact that so many prophetic
utterances were in poetry makes it more difficult to understand
them, for they may indulge in poetic fancy.

Besides the exaggerations of poetry - and Semitic poets at
that - we need to keep some other things in mind to understand
the prophecies of the future. St. Augustine, in <City of God> 17.
3, notices that <some predictions refer to Old Testament persons,
some to New Testament persons, some to both>. He finds an
indication of this latter when something that at first sight
would seem to refer to a certain figure, does not entirely fit
him, e.g., the prophecy of Nathan to David in 2 Samuel 7:12
speaks of a successor who will come "after David sleeps with his
fathers." At first sight this would seem to be Solomon. But
Augustine notices that Solomon became king not after David's
death, but before it: so he concludes the prophecy is only partly
fulfilled in Solomon: we must look ahead also to Christ. And only
Christ would have the kind of realm and reign predicted (cf.
Psalm 72: 8, which is entitled, "Of Solomon").

Further, some predictions may have a less glorious
fulfillment than it might have been, e. g., Gen. 49:10, as we
saw, says a ruler will not be lacking from Judah until the time
of the Messiah. This came true, but would have had a much more
glorious fulfillment, in splendid kings on the throne of David,
if the Jews had not been so unfaithful so many times.

Isaiah : His times

His ministry began about 742, "the year King Uzziah died", and
ran until sometime in the reign of Hezekiah (715-687). He worked
chiefly in Judah. The time before the death of Uzziah had been
one of great external development and prosperity for both
northern and southern kingdoms, especially since the power of
Assyria had declined at that time. Also the power of Syria, which
had disturbed the north in the 9th century, had also declined.
During the reign of Uzziah there were victories over the
Philistines, Arabs, Ammonites, and Edomites. Jerusalem was
fortified. Uzziah promoted agriculture and industry.

In the north, it was the time of Jeroboam II, another
forceful king, who restored the boundaries of his nation .
Prosperity and wealth were everywhere, which opened the way to
corruption. Both northern and southern kingdoms then enjoyed
power such as they had not known since the division of the
kingdom.

But that was to change. Tiglath Pileser III, who was
conquest-minded, came to the throne of Assyria. He made Syrian
Arpad a province, and so got tribute from Damascus under Rezin
and from Tyre under Hiram. Next he extended his power to Lebanon,
and soon penetrated the territory of Israel. He seems to have
been the Pul mentioned in 2 Kings 15:19 to whom King Menahem gave
tribute a thousand talents of silver. The name Azariah, which is
the same as Uzziah, appears on Assyrian tablets as among the
princes who joined an alliance against Tiglath Pileser. In many
ways Uzziah seems to have been religious, but yet he did not
remove the high places. Josephus, <Antiquities> 9.22 tells that
at the height of his power he became proud, attempted to offer
sacrifice in the temple, even though the high priest warned him.
At that very time he was stricken with leprosy, thus ending his
public exercise of kingship, and a devastating earthquake came at
the precise moment of his sin against the priests. (cf. 2 Kings
15:5). Yet the prosperity of Judah in his reign was greater than
that of any period since Solomon.

During this general period God sent some to whom He revealed
His plan, such as the prophet Amos (cf. 3:7) who told of the
coming dangers and called for repentance and faith. A bit later
Hosea preached in the northern kingdom, which was to fall with
the fall of Samaria in 722 BC. God's plans span great periods of
time with ease.

So it was a very turbulent time for Judah and others, since
Assyria was expanding to the west, aiming at a world empire.
Isaiah, with divine guidance, saw the danger before others did.
Many of his contemporaries mocked his predictions (5:19). Isaiah
saw not only the international situation, but also the sins of
his people, which were to lead to a judgment by God (chapter 6).
Most likely Isaiah 5:26-30 has the Assyrian threat in mind, even
though Isaiah does not at this time mention Assyria by name.
Syria and Damascus tried to force Judah into an alliance with
them against Assyria. King Achaz refused, and even joined an
alliance with Assyria, contrary to the urging of Isaiah (chapter
7). Syria and Damascus invaded Judah in 735. Isaiah offered Achaz
a sign in the sky or in the depths. But Achaz pretended that
would be tempting God - which it was not, since God had invited
him to ask for it. Achaz gave tribute to Assyria, which then took
Damascus, and killed its king Rezin. Achaz was a wicked king, who
even offered his own son in sacrifice to an idol:2 Kings 16:3.

Hezekiah, son of Achaz, was a good king who eliminated idols and
human sacrifice. He also resisted Egyptian requests to join in a
coalition against Assyria, but still, when Sennacherib became
king of Assyria, he withheld tribute (2 Kings 18:7). Contrary to
the warnings of Isaiah he became a leader in the revolt against
Assyria, and made a treaty with Egypt (Is 30:1-7;31:1-3).

Isaiah seems to have had little to say in the
period 727 (probable date of death of Achaz) to 705, death of
Sargon of Assyria, even in 722 when Sargon conquered Samaria as
Isaiah had predicted (probably around 725). Yet Isaiah begins to
speak much again around 715, when Hezekiah took full power. The
prophecies of chapter 18 and 20 probably show Isaiah's lively
interest in the revolt of the Palestinian states, supported by
Egypt, against Assyria. Hezekiah was inclined to cooperate with
alliances against Assyria, and Isaiah warned against this. When
Sennacherib laid siege to Jerusalem, Isaiah encouraged Hezekiah.
The lesser cities in Judah were all reduced by Sennacherib. But
he did not take Jerusalem, though he claimed he shut up Hezekiah,
"like a bird in a cage" (ANET 288). Hezekiah sued for terms, and
tribute to Assyria was greatly increased. 2 Kings 18:17 - 19:37
also mentions what some scholars think was a second revolt
against Assyria, in which Hezekiah was again besieged, but Isaiah
assured him the city would not fall. Assyria was turned back,
either because of an epidemic in the army (2 Kings 19:35) or
because Sennacherib was needed suddenly back home. About this
time Hezekiah became ill, seemed likely to die. But at his
prayer, God gave him 15 more years of life:Is 38:10-20. There is
an unverifiable tradition that Isaiah was sawed in two by order
of King Manasseh (687-42).

In all, it is very difficult to be sure which of these events
Isaiah had I mind in a particular passage.

The Text of Isaiah

Most scholars today see three Isaiahs, for chapters 1-39,
40-55, and 56-66, describing three periods:threat of punishment,
exile, and restoration. We consider this is possible, but there
is surely no convincing proof that there were three. For this is
simply the familiar deuteronomic pattern we have met before. And,
as we pointed out, Amos and Hosea show the same pattern. Isaiah
merely fills it in more thoroughly. Further, even within the so-
called three sections, Isaiah can easily shift from one tone to
another.

Another attempt against the unity of Isaiah comes from the
fact that there is a the prediction of the actions of Cyrus by
name (44:28). But this argument is valid only if one insists
there can be no true prophecies. Actually, as we will soon see,
Isaiah did predict things about the Messiah in three passages.
Micah 5:2, his contemporary, predicted by name the place of birth
of the Messiah. And someone less than a major prophet in 1 Kings
13:2 foretells actions of King Josiah, to come about 300 years
later (which are recorded in 1 Kings 23:15). Flavius Josephus, in
<Antiquities> XI. 1. 1-2 asserts that Cyrus before releasing the
Jews from captivity, read the prophecy about himself in Isaiah,
and that this influenced his decision.

The book opens with a denunciation of the sinfulness of the
people, with special stress on the fact that sacrifices then were
mere externalism. This thought is crystallized in a passage
farther on, in 29:13: "This people honors me with their lips, but
their hearts are far from me." Older critics used to claim that
Isaiah and other major prophets rejected sacrifices. But it was
the empty external "participation" that they denounced. Then
29:14 goes on to say that because of this defective worship, "the
wisdom of the wise will perish". This would be a punishment like
that given through Rehoboam.

Some major messianic prophecies are found in Isaiah, which
the targums recognize as messianic - except, in their present
form, for 7:14.