Verse 1. "Wars and contentions" (in the Greek, for "contentions " we have, μαχαι, fights), probably refer to the same thing—viz., quarrels and disputes, which may be either of a civil or religious nature, to which latter kind the Jews were particularly prone. Some commentators refer this also to the teachers—it is better, however, extend it to all Christians; and as these words are written for all times, probably the word "wars" may refer to those which St. James foresaw would take place at a future day, even between Christian states. They all originate in their "concupiscences," i.e., their unsubdued lusts, "which war in your members," i.e., which employ the members of the body, viz., the eyes, the ears, the tongue, the hands, &c., as instruments of that warfare, which the unsubdued passions of pride, selfishness, avarice, &c., endeavor eternally to carry on in the soul of man

Verse 2. In this verse, he shows the utter folly of seeking for pleasure and real happiness in the gratification of these concupiscences, s nee this gratification ends in total disappointment. "You covet," i.e.^ indulge these passions, "and have not," and still you cannot secure the object of their gratification. " You kill and envy and cannot obtain." For "kill," the reading in some Greek copies is, φονεeiτε και ζηλουτε, you envy and are jealous. And this reading Estius thinks would make better sense. The reading followed by the Vulgate, φονευετε, you kill, has, however, the authority of the best manuscripts, in its favor ; and the word " kill," most likely refers to the will and disposition to commit murder, the guilt of which it entails; rather than to the act, although, even amongst the early Christians, some might possibly be found to commit the deed; and what wonder, was not a Judas found among the twelve Apostles to do worse? "You contend and war, and you have not, because you ask not," i.e., you strive and labor hard to gratify your desires; and still, you possess not the happiness, of which you are in search, "because you ask not," because you have not recourse to God by prayer, to obtain these solid and substantial goods, alone capable of satisfying the cravings of the heart, which come only from Him, who is the source of every good gift (1:17).

Verse 3. The words of this verse are an answer to an objection which the converted Jews are supposed to make to St. James; we do ask, and fin's is of no use for us. St. James answers, that their prayers are fruitless, for want of the proper dispositions, either because the object of their petition is bad, and the required feelings of humility, confidence, and perseverance, are wanting, both of which, as to the object and dispositions of their prayer, are included in the word "amiss;" or, because the motive of their prayer may be bad—their object in begging for temporal goods is, "to consume," to squander them in gratifying their corrupt passions; to such prayers, God will never lend an ear.

Verse 4. "By adulterers," some understand those guilty of carnal adultery. In the Codex Vaticanus, the reading is, μοιχαλίδες, adulteresses, as if addressing those carnally guilty of this grievous crime. It is, however, more commonly understood to refer to spiritual adultery, of which the sinner is guilty, when he deserts and proves unfaithful to God, to whom he was betrothed, and to whom he pledged his faith in baptism. This latter interpretation is rendered probable by the following words: "know you not that the friendship of this world is the enemy of God," as if he said; in the desertion of God for the friendship of his enemy and rival, this "adultery" consists. St. James here exhibits God and the world as two rivals, both of whom cannot be served at the same time, as God will not admit of a divided heart, of a divided service or allegiance. St. James, of course, here speaks of that "friendship" and love "of this world," which implies a conflict with, and a violation of, the law of God. It is, as considered and viewed in this latter respect, that we always find the "world " reckoned in Scripture as the enemy of God and of man's eternal welfare; because it demands a service inconsistent with the undivided service we owe God. The Commentators who, with Oecumenius, understand the preceding verses of this chapter to refer to the teachers, have very little difficulty in tracing the connection of this verse with the preceding, thus: Know you not, who in the exercise of your ministry, seek only your own elevation, and the praises of men, before the glory of God, and are, therefore, guilty of spiritual adultery, that the friendship and inordinate love, which you have for this world, for its riches, honors, and praises, is opposed to the love you owe God; and that by becoming the friends of this world, you become the enemies of God? In the interpretation adopted in the Paraphrase, it is not at all necessary to trace any connection with the preceding. It may be said, that the Apostle enters here on a new topic altogether, a thing quite in accordance with his style in this Epistle.

Verse 5. This passage has been variously interpreted by different commentators. Some understand by "spirit," the corrupt spirit of man. This opinion is preferred by Estius. Others—and, it would seem, with greater probability—refer it to the spirit of God, received in baptism. Of this spirit we find it frequently said, that it dwells in the souls of man; and of the same only could the words of the following verse be verified. "But he gives greater grace." The meaning of the passage, then, appears to be (as in Paraphrase), that the Holy Spirit, dwelling in a Christian, so loves him, as to entertain feelings, analogous to envy, at his being possessed by any other. The connection of this interpretation with the context is quite evident; it goes to show, that the man who gives the world a place in his heart, is become the enemy of God, who cannot peaceably dwell in a soul that has an affection for his rival. But the question may be asked: What does the word "Scripture "refer to, and in what part of Scripture is the text here quoted to be found?

Answer.—Whenever the Scripture is quoted by any of the writers of the New Testament, reference is made to some part of the Old Testament; to the law and the prophets. It is not clearly ascertained in what part of the Old Testament the text referred to is found. Most likely, reference is made to the passage in which God is described as a "jealous God" (Exodus 20:6, and elsewhere); and St. James quotes not the language but the sense of these passages, which he develops and explains in his own words. Others make the word, "Scripture," allude to the foregoing; and these place a note of interrogation after the words "in vain," thus : "Do you think that the Scripture says in vain?" when, in several passages, it represents the friendship of this world as the enemy of God. And then, again, they ask. "Does the spirit that dwells in you covet unto envy?" (The Greek for "in you," is, εν ημιν, in us). By no means; since the Holy Spirit of God, rather prompts to acts of benevolence and virtue. According to this latter construction, there is no scriptural allusion or quotation whatever, contained in the words, "to envy does the spirit," &c. The interpretation adopted in the Paraphrase seems preferable, and more in accordance with the context.

Verse 6. "But he gives greater grace," &c., i.e., it is no wonder that he should be jealous of every other rival in our affections; since every other, that may claim our affections, can bestow, at best, but fleeting, unsubstantial goods, which end in bitterness and remorse, and bear no proportion with "the greater grace," the eternal blessings, he has in store for us, of which he gives us a sure earnest in this life. In the other interpretation, the words of this verse may be connected with the preceding, thus: "Does the Holy Spirit of God prompt us to acts of envy?" (verse 5). By no means; since, on the contrary, he bestows abundant grace to overcome these vicious dispositions of our nature, and to incite us to acts of benevolence. "Wherefore he says: God resists the proud," &c., i.e., in order to be partakers of this abundant grace of God, the first and most necessary disposition on our part is humility, to the absence of which we may trace the vices we have been denouncing in the preceding part of the chapter. This quotation would appear very much to favor the interpretation and construction just referred to; since, far from promoting us to envy, the spirit of God bestows great grace, but only on those who have dispositions of humility so opposed to the spirit of envy. The words, "God resists the proud," &c., are quoted here by St. James according to the Septuagint version. In the Vulgate of St. Jerome, they run thus: "He shall scorn the scorners, and to the meek, he shall give grace."—(Proverbs, 3:34).

Verse 7. "Therefore," whereas, it is only to the humble he will give grace, "be subject to God." In Greek, υποταγητε, i.e., with true humility of heart, and a ready disposition to obedience, range yourselves under the banner of God. "And resist." The corresponding Greek word, αντιστητε, means, stand against the devil, in which, as in the preceding word, "be subject,' a military metaphor would appear to be implied.

Verse 8. "Draw nigh unto God." Of course, this is to be effected by the aid of divine grace; but, as in the performance of a salutary action, the human will and divine grace concur, the entire effect is sometimes in SS. Scripture wholly ascribed to the will of man, as here, and at other times, to the more principal cause, viz., divine grace. "Cleanse your hands, ye sinners." The most effectual means to be adopted by those who have been enrolled under the sacred banners of God only of late—"you sinners"—for resisting the devil is, "by cleansing their hands," in other words, by ceasing from wicked actions, and by performing good works, of which the "hands" are the chief instruments. As to those, who have been wavering between pleasing God and gratifying their passions, or between their inveterate habits of sin, and their weak purposes of good—"you double minded" (διψυχοι, having two souls)—their duty, aided and assisted by divine grace, is "to purify their hearts," i.e., their thoughts, motives, and intentions. "If your eye be simple, your whole body will be lightsome; but if thy eye (i.e., the intention or motive) be evil, thy whole body (i.e., the body of thy actions) will be darksome" (St. Matthew, 6:22). For the full meaning of "double minded," see chapter 1 verse 8.

Verse 9. In order to make atonement for the past, and dispose themselves for reconciliation, they should have recourse to the salutary exercises of holy penance; they should "afflict" themselves, "mourn and weep;" the laughter in which they indulged during the temporary and transient enjoyment of sinful pleasures, should now be exchanged for "mourning," and the passing "joy" which they then felt should be exchanged for the opposite and contrary feeling of penitential "sorrow." Similar is the exhortation of the Prophet Joel (2:12): "Be converted to me with all your hearts, in fasting, and in weeping and mourning." From this passage it is clear, that external works of satisfaction form a part of the penance, which is necessary for our reconciliation with God.

Verse 10. "Be humble," &c. The chief disposition for our reconciliation with God, is true humility, "in the sight of the Lord," i.e., truly humbled; for things are seen by God, as they really are; the words also suggest the most effectual means of acquiring true humility, which is the consideration of God's infinite greatness, and of our own nothingness. "Quis tu Domine? quis ego?" exclaims St. Francis. Tu abyssus ominis boni, et ego abyssus omnis mali et niliili. Noverim te Domine, noverim me, was the favorite exclamation of St. Augustine. O God! grant us this all-necessary virtue of humility.

Verse 11. St James now cautions them against a vice which, like the other vices denounced  by him in the preceding part of the chapter, springs from pride, viz., that of detraction, under which are included calumny, contumely, and all the other vices of the tongue, whereby the reputation of our neighbor is unlawfully injured. This vice has its origin in pride, in the inordinate desire to raise ourselves by lowering the character of our neighbor. "He that detracts his brother, or judges,” &c. In some Greek copies, m place of "or," we have, and; but the disjunctive particle is found in the chief MSS. "Detracts the law and judges the law," because by detracting and judging his brother, he practically declares and, by a virtual and implicit judgment, pronounces the law prohibiting detraction to be unjust, as interfering with his natural right over the full use and exercise of his tongue. No doubt, the same is true of the violation of every other precept of the law; the man who violates it practically condemns the law, as in the case of theft, murder, &c. But this in a more special manner applies to the rash judgment regarding our neighbor, in which an act of judgment is expressly contained; and that, in opposition to the law prohibiting it; St. James appropriates to the violation of the law, as regards the rash judgment in question, the inconvenient consequence of condemning the law itself—although a consequence in some measure common to it, with the violation of every other precept—because the crime is committed by Judging, which is expressly forbidden by the law. St. Thomas and others understand by the law "which is judged," the law of fraternal charity. It is "judged" by being contemned by him who rashly judges his neighbor; this opinion is preferred by Estius, who thinks the words have a peculiar application to teachers, who, with supercilious haughtiness, despise others and wish that their own dicta should pass for law. The words are particularly true, in the case where detraction is employed in vilifying our neighbor’s character, on account of his more exact observance of the duties and counsels of Christian perfection. There is no vice more common in the world than this dreadful vice of detraction. "Tanita libido hujiis mali mentes hominum invasit, ut etiam qui procul ab aliis vitiis recesserunt in istud, quasi in extremum diaboli laqueum, incidadit."—St. Jerome (Ep. ad Celantium). How few are there to be found, even among those who appear to lead a regular Christian life, to scruple this matter, as they ought! How few who bear in mind that, while judging their neighbor, they are only adding to the weight of their own judgment, before a just judge whose prerogatives they usurp! How little do men think of setting up a tribunal and anticipating the judgment of God! "Tu quis es qui judicas alienum servum?” —(Rom. 14:4). Truly, " si quis verbo non offendit, hic perfectus est vir." "Place, O Lord ! a guard on my mouth, and a gate of prudence on my lips." "But if you judge the law, you are no longer a doer of the law but a judge." You set yourself above the law, as its superior, instead of regarding yourself, as bound by it.

Verse 12. "And judge," και κριτης. This word is omitted in some Greek copies; however, it is in the chief manuscripts and versions. By thus sitting in judgment on thy neighbor thou dost usurp a function, and dost intrude on a province that does not belong to thee. To the Supreme Judge and Legislator alone does it belong to judge his creatures. He alone can affix a proper sanction to his law by rewarding those who obey it, and punishing the refractory. From Him is all legislative and judicial authority among men, derived, "'per me, reges regnant, et legum conditores justa decernunt,'' and for Him, are we to obey all legitimate authority, whether temporal or spiritual.  "0mnis anima subdita sit sublimioribus potestatibus; Qui vos audit, me audit." The man, then, who rashly judges his neighbor, is guilty of judging the law; (verse 11), and of presumptuously usurping the prerogative of the Almighty (verse 12)

Verse 13. "But who are you?" &c. " But," is not in some Greek copies. It is found in the Vatican MS. "Your neighbor;" in some Greek copies, another: πλησίον, neighbor, is the reading of the Vatican and Alexandrian MSS. As if he said, wretched worm of the earth, who art thyself one day to be judged, what right or control have you over your fellow-creatures?—who is it authorized you, thus to sit in judgment on him? "For his own master will he stand or fall."—Rom. 16:14. "Behold now you that say," &c. For "behold" it is the Greek, αγε, go to, or come on, as in chap. 5 verse 1. It is merely a form soliciting attention. Some commentators endeavor to trace a connection between these words and the foregoing, thus:—Who art thou to judge thy neighbor? you who are so foolish, in the ordinary language of life, as altogether to renounce practically your dependence on divine providence, although your weakness and frail dependence be such as not to be able to promise yourselves a moment's continuance in existence. This connection is warranted, in a certain sense, by the division of the verses in the Vulgate. The more probable opinion, however, appears to be (as in Paraphrase), that St. James is censuring another vice of the tongue, then so common among worldly-minded persons, who relied too confidently on their own strength, in the execution of their designs and purposes, and seemed altogether to forget their dependence on God's adorable providence. Such persons propose to themselves to traffic for years, and to execute other purposes at some future time with a degree of certainty and security, that would imply their independence of God's providence. It is the irreligious sentiments expressed by such language that St. James here condemns, as appears from verse 1, their "rejoicing in their arrogancies." In some Greek copies, instead of "we will go, will spend," &c., it is, let us go, let us spend, &c. But the Vulgate translator has better expressed the sense of St. James, by employing the future Indicative, which more clearly conveys their foolish resolves in regard to the future. Moreover, the future is the reading of the Codex Vaticanus.

Verse 14. Such foolish men may experience the fate of the rich glutton in the Gospel, who gave up his soul, in the very execution of his projects of self-aggrandizement— (Luke 12:20).

Verse 15. The words of the preceding verse (14) and of this, as far as "For that you should say," are to be read parenthetically. " What is your life?" "It is a vapor," &c. The Greek has, γαρ, "for," it is a vapor, &c. It is like the morning dew, which ascends in thin vapor, and immediately after disappears altogether from our eyes. We frequently meet in sacred Scripture with beautiful comparisons of the same kind  "Remember," (says Job. 7:7), "that my life is but wind as a cloud is consumed and passes away," &c. (Psalm 143.) The conclusion is, that as human life is thus fleeting, precarious, and uncertain, it is the excess of folly, and the height of presumption in them, thus to calculate for certain, on the success and enjoyment of their future projects. "For that you should say." These words are to be immediately connected with the words, verse 13: "You say, today or tomorrow, we shall go into such a city," &:c. "For that you should say," i.e., instead of which mode of speaking, you should say, "if the Lord wills," and "if we shall live." These two conditions should be always expressed, or at least implied, whenever we propose to ourselves the accomplishment of any future project. The example of St. Paul alone shows us how much these forms of expression, recommended by St. James, were at the time in use.— Acts 18 ; 1 Cor. 4 and 16; Hebrews 6; Rom. 1; Philipp. 2. Even among the Pagans, viz., Socrates, Cicero, Cato, &c., such forms were in use.

Verse 16. In this verse, the Apostle shows that he is condemning dispositions of mind, the opposite of the Christian and religious forms of speech, which he is recommending. He is censuring such persons as attributed the merit of their success to themselves, without a due regard to God's Providence and assistance. Such conduct on their part is "arrogance" or pride, since, of themselves, they can do nothing. "All such rejoicing is wicked," such haughty, presumptuous reliance on our powers is, in every case, evil, because it is a practical lie, and a lie, too, injurious to God's supreme dominion over his creatures. St. James by no means condemns a prudent provision for futurity, dependent on God's will and Providence.

Verse 17. The connection adopted in Paraphrase is: You know, as Christians, all that I am saying: you know your dependence on Providence and the uncertainty of life; now, this knowledge will only aggravate the sinfulness of your impious and unchristian mode of expressing your future resolves. Or, the words of this verse may be only a conclusion drawn from the two foregoing chapters, wherein St. James instructs them in several points of Christian morality; and now, he tells them, that if they hereafter sin in any of the particular points in which he instructed them, the instruction and knowledge imparted will only aggravate their sin; for, sins committed with knowledge are more grievous, than if they were committed in ignorance.